Judaism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Judaism - Essay Example Although Jews resemble Christians in many ways, they are not confined to pray or worship in one area or room like the Christians. They believe that God dwells among people and not in a specific place. In addition to that, Jews are more independent and do not relate or reference with any other religion like the Christians relate to them. Although the Christians continuously reference to the Jews customs and traditions, Jews have remained independent do not borrow or copy practices from other religions (Valkenberg, 34). In conclusion, it is clear that Christianity and Judaism have a lot of similarities. However, there are also a lot of differences between the two uniquely similar religions. Judaism is both a â€Å"peoplehood† and a religion while Christianity is basically a religion. With this in mind, it is evident that though Christianity and Judaism have a lot of similarities, the differences that exist cannot be settled until the coming of Christ as stated in the Bible and Torah (Valkenberg,

Literacy Planning Essay Example for Free

Literacy Planning Essay Introduction The purpose of this report was to collect and collate information from a teacher in relation to how reading is taught in a classroom structure. This was based on how the teacher taught reading, what they taught and in particular why these aspects of reading were taught. Through the interview and questions I asked of the teacher, it has come quite clear that reading that is taught to students is embedded in everything we do, but overall teaching children to learn to read is fundamental in a practical sense and also for enjoyment. This document provides: An overview on the targeted teaching group What beliefs in relation to teaching literacy Who selects the curriculum content What instructional procedures are used How grouping strategies are used What and why assessment tools are used The classroom environment 1. Overview on targeted teaching group. The following documentation and conclusion were questions asked of a Year 2 teacher situated within the Early Years team consisted of 23 students within a school (CDPS) in the Southern suburbs of Adelaide, South Australia. This teacher had been teaching mainly in the Early Years for 6 years and has come to CDPS as a new contract teacher. CDPS is a Category 2 school set in a low social economic setting. This school has 252 students attending at present, 155 of these are main stream with the remaining 97 students attending the Disability Unit that is incorporated within the school. There is a high ratio of Multicultural students as well as Aboriginal students needing extra support with their education due to English being their second language. This school also has a high focus on Literacy through an Intervention Team that is made up of teachers that specialise in different areas such as a Reading Support Teacher Years Reception to 2, a Literacy Intervention Teacher Years 3 -7, Aboriginal Education Teacher (AET) and a English as a Language and Dialect Teacher (EALD) and Negotiated Education Plan Teacher (NEP). Also at CDPS there is speech support for students through Undergraduate Speech Pathologists, as the school supports a Flinders University Speech Pathology program. This program support is across both sites of the school by Third and Fourth year Undergraduate students that work with the guidance of the class teachers and University Speech Pathologist on different elements of literacy to further develop student’s phonological awareness and knowledge. 2. Beliefs in relation to teaching literacy Through the question put forward to the 2/3 teacher, ‘What are your beliefs and philosophies in literacy in relations to students learning to read and you teaching reading’, the teacher explained that they believed that literacy was embedded in everything that we do. This could be from the simplest tasks of looking at a milk carton to looking at a traffic light going red. With this cultural awareness, we as adults have the understanding and prior knowledge that encases these objects in our ever day life. As explained by Harris, Turbill, Fitzsimmons and McKenzie (pg17, 2006), ‘Literacy is the ability to read and use written information and to write appropriately in a range of context. It is also used to develop knowledge and understanding, to achieve personal growth and to function effectively in our society. ’ For students to understand and have knowledge of such objects and items they must be exposed socially and culturally. For teachers who provide context for learning can enable students to develop control over their written language, so they can network successfully in a literate culture. Also based on the teachers belief, teaching children to learn to read is and can be fundamental, in a practical sense and needs to be also for enjoyment. As the main feature of language is listening, speaking, reading and writing, it is explained by Makin, Diaz McLachlan (2007) beginning readers and writers usually require explicit teaching about such language knowledge as the alphabetic principal, print conventions, spelling and reading strategies. As explicit instruction in reading is essential for most children, through surrounding them with language and literature is vital but not the whole picture. This could be done by exploring how language works, playing with language, and learning about genre structure. Through an immense amount of discussions surrounding these concepts, it can provide a child with a rich foundation from which they can continue to build their knowledge and apply these new skills. From a whole school perspective at CDPS, various programmes and philosophies are to be followed. These programmes and philosophies have been put in place for teachers to unite as a community for learners. For example, Accelerated Literacy, the scaffolds of Stephen Graham; David Hornsby’s Guided reading; Anne Bayetto’s Spell, Record, Respond; strategies from â€Å"Reading Comprehension: taking the learning deeper†, and the Oxford word list. CDPS also has an English Genre Map and a Spelling genre Map in which they are expected to follow to encourage learning that can be continually built upon and can also avoid learning gaps. 3. Selection of Curriculum Content CDPS curriculum content is decided upon as a whole school through both English and Spelling genre maps. The English genre map indicates that teachers will use: The explicit teaching pedagogies of Accelerated literacy, The scaffolds of Stephen Graham, David Hornsby’s Guided Reading, Anne Bayetto’s Spelling, Record, Respond, and  Strategies from â€Å"Reading Comprehension: Taking the Learning Deeper† research project. These are the foundations for the implementation for the teaching of reading, writing, comprehension, visual literacy, spelling, grammar and punctuation. This map specifies the text types that will be taught during each term and through the order of these text types, it ensures that each focus expands a student’s repertoire and prepares them for the next text type. As explained by Harris, Turbill, Fitzsimmons and McKenzie (2006) when encountering texts, readers not only consider the kind of text they have at hand, but what the text is about. For example, students that are studying factual recounts before they move into biography or autobiography will study literary description before they move into narrative and factual description before they move into information report writing. CDPS’s spelling continuum is underpinned by pedagogy as outlined in Anne Bayetto’s Spell, Record, and Respond. As explained by Bayetto (2011), Listening, speaking, reading, writing, and spelling are intertwined and nourish each other. To communicate through writing, students must apply both oral language skills, for example,  knowledge of syntax and semantics, and reading skills, for example, sounds of letters in words. In addition students must be able to think about and organise a topic, spell words, and legibly produce letters. CDPS spelling programmes are based on spelling lessons each day. Every student receives a differentiated spelling programme based on spelling needs determined by Oxford Wordlist assessments, Monster Spelling assessments, or words taken from independent writing and theme words. Also at CDPS they use a flow lists of words not fixed lists of words. This means that each student’s words stays on a student’s list until they can spell, read and put the words into an understandable context. This is observed through each student only given three words at a time based on the approach of less words and more learning activities. These activities allow children to complete the activities with their spelling words through multiple intelligent activities, giving all children the opportunity to work in their preferred learning style and creating the understanding and knowledge of the words that they are learning. A phonics programme has also been strongly recommended and supported by the school-based Speech Pathologist from Flinders University and has proven to be highly effective in improving reading amongst Junior Primary classes. This is achieved by teachers following the implementation of the phonics programme and through this programme teachers are continually bringing back a focus of literacy to apply this knowledge whilst reading together as a whole class or as independent readers. As explained by Dymock (2007), teachers play an important role in assisting students to develop a good understanding of text structure awareness. Through teachers using good instructional guidance, it can be the most powerful means of promoting the development of proficient reading comprehension and developing reading problems. 4. Instructional Procedure, Grouping and Differentiation Strategies At CDPS, students practice through explicit team orientation in the classroom and draw on various cooperative learning strategies. These can be seen by the teacher as supportive ways for group work, ability levelling, shared learning, and to create a fully collaborative approach to each student’s learning. Through these practices it can also enable the teacher to become facilitators rather than indoctrinators. As explained by the teacher, students share reading as a whole class. This enables the teacher to introduce a new text, giving students time to discuss as a whole group about the text and their ideas enabling the teacher to further identify where students needs for further clarification of the new text. Guided reading groups are differentiated to provide an explicit teaching and learning session. This gives students a targeted focus specifically to the level of what the group is working at. Through guided reading it allows the students to focus on reading and comprehension strategies. Also peer reading session are set up with Year 7 students to support the students with their reading. These sessions give the students time to observe strategies that other students use and time for them to discuss the different strategies that they use whilst reading. Levelled readers are also sent home with students for the practice of independent reading and a vocabulary wall is displayed with specific text that the students have discovered through Accelerated Literacy lessons. These lessons are through explicit teaching ways of talking, viewing, thinking, reading, writing and spelling. As outlined by Cooper, Roth, Speece, Schatschneider,(2002) children progress through a period of emergent literacy during which they develop the rudimentary skills, knowledge, and attitudes that prepare them for the acquisition of conventional literacy. There is also a word wall displayed for the students to look at and to encourage them to write and read independently. Also throughout the week students have times for silent reading and may chose a book of their choice to read giving them further time for independent reading session. Within the early years at CDPS, shared reading and writing is an effective literacy teaching strategy. This can be seen by the teachers through the holding of student’s attention as they are involved in the joint production of the text or whilst at the same time allowing the teacher to model the different aspects of the reading and writing processes. As outlined by Lane, Pullen, Paige, Eisele, and Jordan (2002), reading is a foundation skill for school learning and life learning the ability to read is critical for success in modern society. Learning to read is one of the most important events in a child’s school career. At CDPS, teachers attend fortnightly meetings at Professional Learning Committee’s (PLC’s). In these committees, teachers discuss what aspects of the curriculum they are teaching and share ideas and resources to support the genres and philosophies they are to follow within the school’s curriculum structure. As explained by the teacher differentiation at the present is made quite easy through Cooperative learning systems. At the moment, table groups are based on behaviours and cohesion. As the students have settled, it has become possible to group student’s base on their ability and to pair up high and low functioning students. 6. Assessment Tools At CDPS assessment tools are whole-school based and has been written into the school’s curriculum genre mapping. These assessments include: Running Records; Oxford Word Lists in both Writing and Reading; Screen for Phonological Awareness test (SPA); Language Concepts; Text Orientation and Name Writing. As stated by Harris, Turbill, Fitzsimmons and McKenzie (2006), assessment and evaluation is a vital part of the teaching and learning cycle that forms the basis for a range of decisions that impact within the learning culture. Once this data is collected it is then analysed by the Intervention Team and student’s needs are planned for. All students data is kept on computerised spread sheets and hard copies are also placed into student’s portfolio folders, which stay with the student for the time they are at the school. These portfolio folders are forwarded onto the next class teacher at the end of each year to assist the teacher with planning appropriately for individual students. Student learning and understanding is also assessed both in the midst of lessons verbally as well as after by using a rubric. As explained by the teacher, though these types of assessments, it can give the best feedback to the students on what they need to work on and what their strengths are. As explained by Campbell Green (2006) teachers that primarily assess and monitor the literacy development of their students in a professional manner can reflect the complexities of their literacy. Assessments should also be used to help students take ownership and control over their learning. This gives students the empowerment that is necessary to establish their own purpose for reading and learning. 6. Classroom Resources and Learning Environment Resources are planned during Professional Learning Committee’s (PLC’s) in  conjunction with a team of teachers at a similar teaching level, for example Junior Primary, whereby the aim of these meetings is to discuss planning, share resources and where alignment amongst teaching is made. Generally as a rule, all of the resources that are made by the teachers stay with the teachers, unless they are specifically made resources to target a particular curriculum area. Then these items would be catalogued through the library system for anyone to borrow and use. If a teacher is making their own resources they would generally display these for children to use at specific times of teaching. For example, if students are learning the Alphabet teachers would have picture cards made up for student to look at, order and read. They would also have the Alphabet displays throughout the classroom for visual aids and reminders of what it looks like. As outlined by Harris, Turbill, Fitzsimmons and McKenzie (2006), resources are what learners are immersed in and the source of most of the demonstrations of how language is used and structured. Also as explained by the teacher books for a classroom library would be selected by all students of the class. This was done as a theme based approach at the beginning of the term. For example books that would be about bears had to be found and they all had to find 2 books each. These books then were brought back to the classroom and placed in the library corner on the shelving at student’s height. The teacher also explained that the positioning of word walls and text posters within the classroom were placed at student’s eye height so students could look at, see and read. The reading corner or quiet area that was created was an area where students could go and look at books without the constant interruptions of other students at their desks. There was also a common ruling in this area that voices where to be kept at a whisper. This enabled students to either read for enjoyment or just to browse and relax. 8. Evaluation With all of this in mind I believe literacy is more than an individual act of mean making and language used, it is a social act as well. When students read or write, they bring not only their own personal experiences, but also the experiences of the various social groups in which they hold membership too. As students learn to read or write, they often cannot focus on everything they have to do at the same time. For example, a certain text that they are reading they can read but not comprehend. I believe that the programmes and genre mapping that teacher’s use at CDPS supports Literacy and Phonological awareness amongst their students. It provides and exposes the students to structured Literacy lessons that would be most effective to their reading and writing learning. The support from the teaching staff at CDPS is of high standards and the Speech Pathology program running from the school is one of high standards. It has the best interests of student across both sites. Appendix  The following questions were for a teacher that was asked of them during a one to one interview in relation to how does a teacher teach reading. 1. Beliefs in relation to teaching literacy: What are your beliefs and philosophies in literacy in relations to students learning to read and you teaching reading? 2. Selection of Curriculum Content: How do you as a teacher decide what content of the curriculum you teach within literacy? What areas are you focusing on with your students at present and why? 3. Instructional Procedures: As a teacher what strategies do you choose to teach your students to read and why? What areas of literacy do you currently focus on and how are these displayed with/for your students? 4. Grouping Strategies: How do you as a teacher decided on literacy groups for your students and what diversity strategies do you employ with your students during these times? 5. Assessment Tools: How do you decide on what assessment strategies you use, what methods you use or would be used to assess your students for literacy learning? How do you keep students records once assessments are finished? 6. Classroom Environment: What is the theory behind setting up your classroom literacy resources for your students as displayed? Diagram of the classroom References Bayetto. A. , (2011), Spell, Record, Respond. Moving from assessment to instruction. South Melbourne, Vic. : Oxford University Press Campbell, R. Green, D. (Eds. ) (2006). Literacies and learners: Current perspectives. Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson Education Australia. Cooper, D. H. , Roth, F. P. , Speece, D. L. , Schatschneider, C. (2002). The contribution of oral language skills to the development of phonological awareness. Applied Psycholinguistics, 23, 399-416. Dymock, S. (2007). Comprehension strategy instruction: Teaching narrative text structure awareness. The Reading Teacher, 61(2), pp. 161–167. Harris, P. , Turbill, J. , Fitzsimmons, P. , McKenzie, B. (2006). Reading in the primary years (2nd ed. ). South Melbourne, Vic. : Cengage Learning Australia. Lane, H. B. , Pullen, P. C. , Eisele, M. R. , Jordan, L. (2002). Preventing reading failure: Phonological awareness assessment and instruction. Preventing School Failure, 46(3), 101. Makin, L. , Diaz, C. McLachlan, C. (Ed. ). (2007). Literacies in childhood: changing views, challenging practice. Marrickville, NSW: Elsevier Australia.

Impacts of Salt on Water Resources

Impacts of Salt on Water Resources Introduction. Salinity, one of the major water crises occurring around the globe, is the high concentration of total dissolved solids (TDS), such as sodium and chlorine, in soils and water (Rose, 2004). Salinity is a critical and prevalent problem affecting Australia, threatening the Australian natural environment and the sustainability of productive agricultural areas (Bridgman, Dragovish, Dodson, 2008; McDowell, 2008). This can be attributed to naturally high saline levels in the soils (McDowell, 2008; Pannell, 2001). Across the globe, in countries such as in America, Iran, Pakistan, India and China, large concentrations of salt have accumulated over time due to rainfall, rock weathering, sea water intrusion and aerosol deposits (Table 1) (Beresford et al., 2001; HÃ ¼lsebusch et al., 2007). Dryland salinity, a form of secondary salinity, has particularly become a major problem worldwide (Beresford et al., 2001). Annually, approximately four million hectares of global farmland is abandoned due to excessive salt (Beresford et al., 2001). Salinity is a widespread problem with numerous major social, economic and environmental consequences (Beresford et al., 2001). Outline This paper will consider the occurrence and impacts of primary and secondary salinity on water resources. The discussion will commence by focusing on primary salinity, its occurrence and associated impacts using an example from the Lake Eyre Basin, Australia. The next part of the essay will discuss secondary salinity, its occurrence and impacts using examples from Katanning Western Australia (WA) and Turkey. Iran and Pakistan will then be examined as examples showing the occurrence and impacts of both primary and secondary salinity. Finally the impacts of salinity will be identified and the main arguments of this account summarised. Discussion Primary Salinity Primary salinity is a natural process that affects soils and waters and occurs generally in regions of the world where rainfall is insufficient to leach salts from the soil and evaporation or transpiration is high (McDowell, 2008). In episodes of high evaporation, transpiration and reduced rainfall, salinity becomes a problem as the volume of water decreases while salt concentrations increase (Bridgman, Dragovish, Dodson, 2008). Approximately 1000 million hectares, which corresponds to seven per cent of the worlds total land area, is affected to some extent by salt (Rose, 2004). The majority of the globes saline affected land is influence by primary salinity resulting from natural soil evolution (HÃ ¼lsebusch et al., 2007). Arid tropical areas, in particular, are subject to potential evaporation that is higher than rainfall, which leads to the rising of water to the topsoil where solutes accumulate and salinity can occur naturally (HÃ ¼lsebusch et al., 2007). Australias arid and s emi-arid areas usually have salt present in the groundwater (Table 2) (Bridgman, Dragovish, Dodson, 2008). For example, the River Darling becomes saline during harsh drought periods and salinity concentrations increase in the Hunter Valley when flow diminishes (Bridgman, Dragovish, Dodson, 2008). Lake Eyre Basin, South Australia The Lake Eyre Basin (LEB), in central Australia, is a largely flat area dominated by semi-arid to arid environmental conditions (Figure 1) (McMahon et al., 2008). The area encounters high evaporation rates and spatially and temporally highly variable rainfall (Kingsford Porter, 1993). Year round, potential evaporation is usually greater than actual evaporation with average yearly Class A pan evaporation rates of 3300 millimetres (mm) (Costelloe et al., 2008). Average yearly rainfall in the LEB ranges from less than 200mm in some areas, up to 700mm in others, with an annual coefficient of variability spanning from 0.2 to 0.7 (McMahon et al., 2008). Hydrological conditions in the LEB can vary between prolonged periods of 18 to24 months of no flow, to shorter phases where inundation of slow-moving floods can occur (Costelloe et al., 2008). The portioning of the stable isotopes of water such as d16O/ d18O can be utilised to determine whether evaporation (enriching/fractionation occurs) or transpiration (no fractionation) occurs (Costelloe et al., 2008). In Lake Eyre, the water is sodium and chlorine ion dominated with salinity varying from approximately 25 300 mg L-1 and 272 800 mg L-1 (Kingsford Porter, 1993). The absence of invertebrates and waterbirds in Lake Eyre is thought to be due to salinity from increased evaporation during the dry months (Kingsford Porter, 1993). This salinity is also said to be responsible for massive fish kills that occur as the lake dries after a flood period (Kingsford Porter, 1993). Samples taken in the LEB showed that there was greater enrichment of the isotopic signatures of the surface water than the groundwater samples, a product of high rates of evaporation (Costelloe et al., 2008). The Diamantina River catchment, a major contributor of streamflow to Lake Eyre, was found to have hypersaline, 85,000 mg L-1 [Cl], residual pools in the channel, with a highly enriched isotopic signature, indicating evaporation (Costelloe et al., 2008). The Neales River catchment in the LEB demonstrated extremely saline groundwater (71,000 mg L-1 [Cl]) and hypersaline residual pools of 130,000-150,000 mg L-1 [Cl] (Costelloe et al., 2008). Secondary Salinity Secondary salinity is caused by man made changes to the hydrological cycle either through the replacement of native vegetation with shallow-rooted vegetation or through the excessive use or inefficient distribution of water in irrigation for agriculture (Beresford et al., 2001; Rose, 2004). Modern anthropogenic land-use practices are increasing the area of salt-affected land, which is a major environmental issue (Bridgman, Dragovish, Dodson, 2008). Estimates of secondary salinity affecting the globe are suggested at around 74 million hectares, with 43 million hectares of that land occurring on irrigated land and the remaining area on non-irrigated land (Rose, 2004). In Australia, areas of the Murray Basin and the Mallee region in Victoria (VIC) and New South Wales (NSW) are affected by dryland and irrigation salinity, while irrigation salinity impacts the Riverina Plain in VIC and NSW and the Riverland Region in South Australia (Beresford et al., 2001). Dryland Salinity Dryland salinity is the resultant change in subsurface hydrology in which native vegetation with deeper roots are replaced by shallow-rooted vegetation, such as agricultural crops (Rose, 2004). This process causes a decrease in annual evaporation and an increase in the amount of water reaching the water table (Bridgman, Dragovish, Dodson, 2008). The proceeding rise in the amount of water available can then lead to saline water reaching the soil surface and vegetation (Rose, 2004). When this saline water intersects or reaches the surface, waterlogging and salinization of the surface soil can occur due to the accumulation of salts (Rose, 2004). There is an estimated lag time of 30 to 50 years between vegetation clearance and the emergence of salinity (Bridgman, Dragovish, Dodson, 2008). Around a third of the areas in Australia that are susceptible to dryland salinity are expected to become saline (Figure 2) (Rose, 2004). Dryland salinity has impacted North and South Dakota in Norther n America and the Canadian Western Prairies due to large scale wheat farming in which there is now increasing loss of productivity and rising death rates in a variety of wildlife (Beresford et al., 2001). India, Thailand, Argentina, and South Africa are some of the other countries that experience problems with dryland salinity (Pannell Ewing, 2006). Katanning District, WA In the Katanning district, extensive clearing of native vegetation has lead to the area being reported as having one of the worst salinity problems in WA (Beresford et al., 2001). The town is located in a low, flat part of the landscape, and is agriculturally centred on crops, such as wheat and canola, and sheep (Figure 3) (Beresford et al., 2001). The initial perennial vegetation, mainly of Mallee associations, has been removed and replaced with the aforementioned crops (Bridgman, Dragovish, Dodson, 2008). Following 1891, there was increased wheat cultivation in the district and land clearing (Beresford et al., 2001). In the early 1900s, the increase of salt in nearby natural water sources was quickly linked to the clearing of native vegetation (Beresford et al., 2001). In 2000, records of the Katanning Creek Catchment showed that only 1000 hectares of remnant vegetation remained translating to less than 10 per cent of the catchment being covered (Beresford et al., 2001). It was al so discovered in 2000 that 125 hectares of land neighbouring the town boundary was salt affected, the water table was less than one metre from the surface in some areas and older infrastructure were showing evidence of salt-induced decay (Beresford et al., 2001). Groundwater under the township is influenced by the subsurface flow from catchments where extensive land clearing has occurred (Beresford et al., 2001). Dryland salinity in Australia will continue to increase unless farming systems are dramatically altered on a large scale (Rose, 2004). Irrigation Salinity The application of irrigation can increase salinity levels in soil water, surface water systems and/or aquifers (Van Weert, Van der Gun, Reckman, 2009). Irrigation can also raise water tables, lead to waterlogging, and cause evaporation directly from the water table, increasing solute concentration in the soil (Van Weert, Van der Gun, Reckman, 2009). Around the world, the greater part of anthropogenic salinity is associated with irrigated rather than non-irrigated land (Bridgman, Dragovish, Dodson, 2008). A higher amount of land in Australia that is non-irrigated, rather than irrigated, however, is salt-affected (Pannell Ewing, 2006). Bridgman, Dragovish, Dodson (2008) stated that irrigated areas that have their water table within two metres of the soil surface are salinized. Agriculture, in which irrigation systems are utilized, is especially prone to salinization with approximately half of the irrigation systems globally affected by salinization, alkalization or waterlogging ( Munns, 2002). Countries particularly affected by irrigation salinity include Egypt, China, Pakistan, Iran, India, and Argentina (HÃ ¼lsebusch et al., 2007). Sanliurfa-Harran Plain Turkey Turkey faces salinity problems due to large-scale and intensive irrigation, such as in the Harran Plain (Van Weert, Van der Gun, Reckman, 2009). Only 25 percent, or 19.3 million hectares, of Turkeys land surface is usable for agricultural practices, three percent of which is affected by salinity (Atis, 2006). The main source of soil salinity has resulted from the adverse effects of irrigation water, leading to the formation of high water tables resulting in decreased agricultural productivity and income (Atis, 2006). The Sanliurfa-Harran Plain region is located in an arid and semi-arid climate (Kendirli, Cakmak, Ucar, 2005). In this area, high levels of total dissolved solids have emerged in the shallow groundwater due to excessive and uncontrolled irrigation, waterlogging, rising water tables, and drainage problems (Van Weert, Van der Gun, Reckman, 2009). Prior to the implementation of irrigation in the central and southern parts of the Harran Plain, salinity and drainage problem s already existed, which were then exacerbated when irrigation was applied (Table 3) (Kendirli, Cakmak, Ucar, 2005). It was estimated over fifty percent of productive agricultural land in the Akcakale Groundwater Irrigations area of the Harran Plain was becoming saline after irrigation, some 5000 hectares (Kendirli, Cakmak, Ucar, 2005). In the towns of Harran and Akcakale, within the Sanliurfa-Harran Plain, increased salinity problems and high saline and sodium soils were attributed to public irrigation (Kendirli, Cakmak, Ucar, 2005). Within the Sanliurfa-Harran Plain, over 29 percent of soils examined were becoming saline following irrigation (Kendirli, Cakmak, Ucar, 2005). Combined Salinity In Iran and Pakistan, the salinization of land resources is a major problem due to a combination of primary salinity and secondary salinity (Kahlown et al., 2003; Qadir, Qureshi, Cheraghi, 2008). Thirty per cent of Irans irrigated area and 26.2 per cent of Pakistans are severely affected by irrigation salinity, much of which may need abandoning (Kendirli, Cakmak, Ucar, 2005; HÃ ¼lsebusch et al., 2007). Iran and Pakistan mainly endure arid and semi-arid environmental conditions (Kahlown et al., 2003; Qadir, Qureshi, Cheraghi, 2008). Annually, rainfall nationally averages 250mm in Iran, while average yearly potential evaporation is extremely high, varying from 700mm to over 4000mm (Qadir, Qureshi, Cheraghi, 2008). Approximately 34 million hectares in Iran are salt-affected (Qadir, Qureshi, Cheraghi, 2008). In the northern area of Iran, slight to moderate salt-affected soils exist, where as highly saline soils are present in the central areas (Figure 4) (Qadir, Qureshi, Cheraghi, 2008). Primary salinity in Iran is a result of a combination of factors including: the geological composition of the soils parent material, such as halite and gypsum, natural salinization of surface waters due to stream salinity, salinity and the expansion of salinity from wind-borne origins, seawater intrusion, low rainfall and high potential evapotranspiration (Qadir, Qureshi, Cheraghi, 2008). Secondary salinity has been a result of: irrigation with saline waters, deficient drainage, unsustainable groundwater pumping, saline aquifer over-exploitation, excessive irrigation and overgrazing (Qadir, Qureshi, Cheraghi, 2008). Some 4.2 million hectares in Pakistan are severely affected by irrigation salinity (HÃ ¼lsebusch et al., 2007). Salinization of soils and water in Pakistan are a result of: natural climatic characteristics, such as high evaporation, geological conditions and the dissolution of salt bearing strata, waterlogging, intensive irrigation, poor drainage, salinity ing ress, inefficient irrigation and inappropriate use of low quality groundwater (Kahlown et al., 2003; Van Weert, Van der Gun, Reckman, 2009). Widespread soil and water salinization in Iran and Pakistan has occurred due to varied combinations of these factors (Kahlown et al., 2003; Qadir, Qureshi, Cheraghi, 2008). Impacts Salinity can cause tree die back, changes in ecosystems, loss of productive lands, salt bush growth, erosion, saline groundwater discharge and saline surface water (Beresford et al., 2001; Bridgman, Dragovish, Dodson, 2008). The groundwater that rises as a result of dryland salinity can contain relatively high amounts of salts which results in saline seepages emerging where the water table intersects the ground surface (Bridgman, Dragovish, Dodson, 2008). If concentrations of sodium ions are high enough, the physical structure of soils may be completely degraded from salinity (McDowell, 2008). This is due to the collapse of soil aggregates and deflocculation of clay particles; compaction then occurs and causes decreased permeability and porosity which restricts water storage as well as slowing internal drainage (McDowell, 2008). Salinity can result in the deterioration of river and stream quality, for example, in the Murray Darling River system in SA, the town of Morgans water qual ity is expected to exceed the desirable drinking limit of 500 mg L 1 total soluble salts within the next ninety years (Pannell Ewing, 2006). Concentrated salt-affected water can move to surface water systems, infiltrate below the root zone or may reach an aquifer and contribute to a progressive increase in salinity of groundwater, decreasing the water quality (Van Weert, Van der Gun, Reckman, 2009). There can be a greater risk of large-scale water quality problems due to an increase in leakage of saline waters from the impacted region (McDowell, 2008). Increased flood risks have also been identified as an impact of dryland salinity as a result of shallower water tables which can lead to at least a two-fold increase in flood flows (Pannell Ewing, 2006). Conclusions Salinity is a major problem throughout the world, particularly in arid and semi-arid environmental climates. Primary salinity is a natural phenomenon that affects soils and waters in periods of high evaporation, transpiration, and low rainfall. This process occurs notably in Australia, as well as many other countries, such as Iran and Pakistan. Secondary salinity is human induced from either land clearing or irrigation. Numerous countries experience dryland salinity, such as North America, India, Canada, Thailand, Argentina, and South Africa, as well as Australia. Countries that are affected by irrigation salinity include Egypt, Australia, China, Pakistan, Iran, Turkey, India, and Argentina. Generally, salinity causes a decrease in the quality of water resources and can lead to a decrease in quantity, if the water table has risen substantially as a result, and increased evaporation occurs. References Atis, E 2006, Economic impacts on cotton production due to land degradation in the Gediz Delta, Turkey, Land Use Policy, 26, pp. 181 186. Beresford, Q, Bekle, H, Phillips, H, Mulcock, J 2001, The Salinity Crisis: Landscapes, Communities and Politics, University of Western Australia Press, Crawley. Bridgman, H, Dragovish, D, Dodson, J 2008, The Australian Physical Environment, Oxford University Press, USA. Costelloe, JF, Payne, E, Woodrow, IE, Irvine, EC, Western, AW, Leaney, FW 2008, Water sources accessed by arid zone riparian trees in highly saline environments, Australia, Oecologia, 156, pp. 43 52. HÃ ¼lsebusch, C, Wichern, F, Hemann, H, Wolff, P (eds.) 2007, Organic agriculture in the Tropics and Subtropics Current status and perspectives Supplement No. 9 to the Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development in the Tropics and Subtropics, Kassel University Press, Germany. Kahlown, MA, Chang, MC, Ashraf, M, Hassan, MS 2003, Salt Affected Soils and their Reclamation: Research Report 4, Pakistan Council of Research in Water Resources, Islamabad. Kendirli, B, Cakmak, B, Ucar, Y 2005, Salinity in the Southeastern Anatolia Project (Gap), Turkey: Issues and Options, Irrigation and Drainage, 54, pp. 115 122. Kingsford, RT, Porter, JL 1993, Waterbirds of Lake Eyre, Australia, Biological Conservation, 65, pp. 141 151. McDowell, RW (ed.) 2008, Environmental Impacts of Pasture-Based Farming, CAB International, Oxfordshire. McMahon, TA, Murphy, RE, Peel, MC, Costelloe, JF, Chiew, FHS 2008, Understanding the surface hydrology of the Lake Eyre Basin: Part 1-Rainfall, Journal of Arid Environments, 72, 1853 -1868. Munns, R 2002, Comparative physiology of salt and water stress, Plant, Cell and Environment, 25, pp. 239 250. Pannell, DJ, Ewing, MA 2006, Managing Secondary Dryland Salinity: Options and Challenges, Agricultural Water Management, 80, pp. 41 56. Qadir, M, Qureshi, AS, Cheraghi, SAM 2008, Extent and Characterisation of Salt-Affected Soils in Iran and Strategies for their Amelioration and Management, Land Degradation Development, 19, pp. 214 227. Rose, C 2004, An Introduction to the Environmental Physics of Soil, Water and Watersheds, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Van Weert, F, Van der Gun, J, Reckman, J 2009, Global Overview of Saline Groundwater Occurrence and Genesis, International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre, Utrecht.

Inhalants: A Cheap, Easy and Deadly High Essay -- Inhalant Abuse

Hundreds of household products are being misused as inhalants. Some of these products include nail polish remover, hair spray, cleaning fluids, spray paint, and the propellant in aerosol whipped cream (â€Å"Inhalantsâ€Å", 2010). Inhalants are breathable chemical vapors that users intentionally inhale because of the chemical’s mind-altering effects (National Institute on Drug Abuse [NIDA], 2010). The trend in inhalant abuse is growing among the young community throughout the country. Surveys have shown in 2008 2 million Americans of 12 or over reported using inhalants (NIDA, 2010). Young children from the age of 12 to 17 are the primary age group of abusers (National Drug Intelligence Center [NDIC], 2001). The numbers reflect that it is becoming more popular for young America to abuse the various inhalants available to them without realizing the short term and long term effects of the drug. Inhalants come in many different shapes and sizes. Each inhalant falls into one of four general categories for the substances. Liquids that are vaporized at room temperature if left in unsealed containers are considered volatile solvents. Gasoline, nail polish remover, felt-tip markers, and glue contain volatile solvents. Sprays that contain propellants and solvents fall under the aerosol category. Paint, deodorant, cooking products, and silver and gold spray paint are familiar aerosols. Substances that lack definite shape or volume such as refrigerants and medical anesthetics are gases. Nitrous oxide, also known as laughing gas, is abused more often than any gas. It can be obtained from whipped cream dispensers, products that boost octane levels in racing cars, balloons, or small sealed vials called whippets. Gases found in butane lighters, air c... ...alize that abusing inhalants causes serious effects. Not only does a person experience the short term effects that attract them to the drug but also experience the long term effects that can leave a critical mark on a person’s health. Abusers of inhalants need to be educated that what is thought to be a satisfying high is actually a deadly high. References Inhalants. (2010). Web. 30 Mar. 2015. http://www.drugfree.org/portal/drug_guide/inhalants Missouri Department of Mental Health. (n.d.). Inhalants. Web. 30 Mar. 2015. http://www.well.com/user/woa/fsinhale.htm National Drug Intelligence Center. (2001). Intelligence Brief: Huffing The Abuse of Inhalants. Web. 30 Mar. 2015. http://www.justice.gov/ndic/pubs07/708/index.htm National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2010). Inhalants. Web. 30 Mar. 2015. http://www.drugabuse.gov/drugpages/inhalants.html

Macbeth-Struggle for Power

It is indeed evident that the play, Macbeth is ultimately about the struggle for power. Power is something many desire where people often change and become evil in their attempts to acquire it and during this play the characters go through many changes which lead to disaster. The two main characters mostly influenced by power in this Shakespearean play are Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. Macbeth is swayed by the prophecy made by the witches and also by Lady Macbeth who holds great control over her husband. Through the analysis of characters and techniques it can be seen that the desire of gaining power is evident in the play, Macbeth and that the characters stop at nothing to achieve their goals. Although the protagonist gains power there is still a constant thirst for more, to better their position one step further, even if it comes at the expense of a life. Macbeth becomes fixated on rising to the throne in place of King Duncan however; just recently, he has been given the title of thane of Cawdor by the king. Although happy with the new title and new power, Macbeth still craves for the role held by the king. The importance of honor in society is a primary theme as it is what provokes Macbeth to kill for kingship and sends him on a dismal journey towards the throne. â€Å"If chance will have me king, why chance may crown me without my stir†. (ACT I scene 3, lines 143-145) This demonstrates the ideology that Macbeth is not satisfied with just being a thane but has now heard the prophecy and is seduced by the thought of gaining more power. He hastily makes the decision to Kill Duncan with the influence of Lady Macbeth. Lady Macbeth's struggle for power starts the moment she appears in the play where she finds the letter and launches into criticizing Macbeth's manhood. â€Å"It is too full of o' th' milk of human kindness†. This metaphoric language mirrors the domineering character of Lady Macbeth where she accuses him of being too gentle to kill King Duncan. She believes this so much that she calls on evil spirits to remove Macbeth’s kind nature. â€Å"Hie thee hither that I may pour my spirits in thine ear and chastise with the valor of my tongue all that impedes thee from the golden round, which fate and metaphysical aid doth seem to have thee crowned withal. (Act 1 Scene 5, lines 23-28) Denoting that she is willing to cast out all that is righteous and dignified about her husband in efforts to gain power. She doesn't hesitate to execute the plan of murdering King Duncan because she believes the prophecy is true and that destiny is on her side. In search of power, the characters change and descend into a compulsive state which leads to disaster. As Macbeth falls deeper into this obsession with the throne he becomes a more dishonest and cunning character. â€Å"Who’s there? A friend†. ACT II scene 1, lines 11-12). This use of irony depicts the deceitful nature of Macbeth as he descends into madness. Banquo is a very loyal general to the King and he will not be tempted by Macbeth into betraying him. Macbeth is certainly no friend to Banquo, his murderous quest to kill Duncan contradicts Banquo’s morals and judgment. â€Å"Upon this bank and shoal of time we’d jump the life to come† (ACT I scene 7, lines 6-7). This metaphor exemplifies the idea that this shallow or narrow ford of human life in this great river of eternity. Shakespeare has creatively used symbolism through metaphoric language to demonstrate how a narrow river being cut off and dried up is Macbeth killing Duncan. He will be overthrowing the natural order of the heir to the throne and setting his place in eternity. Evidently he must kill King Duncan in this short period of time while he is still vulnerable in his castle. The effect of ambition on Macbeth drives him into his contemptible acts in order to assume the throne. He falls into a deep obsession which consumes his rational thought and he becomes very evil and conniving. Is this the dagger which I see before me, the handle towards my hand? † (ACT II scene 1, line 33-34) This foreshadowing illustrates the subconscious thoughts of Macbeth and how they materialize in front of him. He starts to visualize this dagger, predicting the malicious tasks ahead which add the disturbing atmosphere. Macbeth chooses to abuse his power over others and he becomes a hated king. This is caused not only by his cruelty but also the many superstitions by people who think he killed Duncan which greatly depleted his power. Lady Macbeth is quick to become evil in her ways as she is the mastermind behind the killing of Duncan. He that’s coming must be provided for, and you shall put this night’s great business into my dispatch† (ACT I scene 6, lines 64-66). These heartless puns convey Lady Macbeth’s merciless intentions for the night’s gathering. Being provided for often takes on the meaning of being fed but in this case Lady Macbeth is referring to the death of King Duncan. Putting the night’s business into her dispatch appears to be something along the lines of carrying out the welcome of the guests and of course she is indicating that Macbeth must follow her instruction in order to kill King Duncan. Ultimately it is evident that Macbeth is about the struggle for power where once you have gained a certain power you still yearn more, establishing a constant desire. When the characters are in search of power they become obsessive and this causes them to change and become evil. Therefore it can be seen that the importance and desire for power greatly contributes to the outcome of the play and the fate of the characters.

Persian is a Lovely Word

Persian is a Lovely Word Persian is a Lovely Word Persian is a Lovely Word By Maeve Maddox Amir Bahmanyari raises a question about the use of the word Farsi in English: . . . there is a well defined word Persian in English which refers to the language of the Iranian people. Why is it that the Arabic word Farsi [is] used in daily communications by the English speaking people instead of the English word Persian? I suspect that political correctness may have something to do with it. Since many immigrants from the Middle East refer to the language as Farsi, it may be that journalists and others think theyre being ethnically respectful by doing the same. Until fairly recently the word Farsi was little known to English speakers. Even though the country formerly known as Persia took on its international identity as Iran in 1935, the language spoken there continued to be known as Persian. As Amir points out in the rest of his comment, Farsi is an Arabic version of the original word Parsi in which the letter P was replaced with an F by the Arabic speaking people. . . there is no letter P in Arabic . . . Although the people of Iran have always called their country Iran, English speakers and most other outsiders referred to it as Persia until 1935. The change came at the suggestion of the Persian diplomatic delegation in Berlin. The suggestion may have been prompted by the fact that the word Iran means land of the Aryans and the word Aryan was very popular in Germany at that time. In English the words Persia and Persian have connotations of exotic beauty. The words suggest Persian carpets, Persian cats and Persian literature. The name Iran has less romantic connotations Referring to the Persian language as Farsi is a recent development that not all speakers of Persian are happy with. According to the ruling body for the language, The Academy of the Persian Language and Literature (Farhangestan), the term Farsi is an incorrect term for the Persian Language; an analogy would be requesting that the German language be called Deutsch by those who speak English. Wikipedia Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:30 Synonyms for â€Å"Meeting†English Grammar 101: Verb Mood45 Idioms with "Roll"